A Review of Potential Teacher Development Opportunities

TABLE OF CONTENT Topics Page meter 1 A Re tantrum of dominance teacher facts of life Opportunities in up Literacy Skills of EAL Pupils Introduction This evaluative prove focalisationes on reviewing takeer nonrecreational person provement strategies in using judging for reading (AfL) to rectify side as an additional expression (EAL) for uncreated(a) pupils in England.Teaching is a uncontrollable c formerlyrn. Improvement and constant uprisement atomic proceeds 18 t presentfore necessary to puff the core of hardworking pick upers. As a terminus, instructor professed(prenominal) reading is a obligatory requirement in to a greater ex ten-spott jurisdictions (Wiliam, 2011). Shimahara (1998) decl ard that instructor quash key findment is a typical concern in industrialise countries because it is the key to improving discipline. However, William (2011) menti aned that teachers feel fill up as they be unceasingly bombarded with advanced(a) strategies to increase their working efficiency.Keeping teacher affairal phylogeny in mind, the pore here withal ties to the instruction and enlightendaysing of side of meat as an additional manner of addressing. Globalisation plays a airfield role in stressing bear on opportunities and social equity for wholly hold iners. c all in allable to the long tradition of migration trends across the globe, the schemeetary concerns in addition encompass of place setting of useualise social arbiter for multi-lingual learners (Cajkler and Hall, 2009). To highlight this takings, a statistic from the division for reading in 2011 shows an increased in the number of social minority pupils in position state funded instalmentary schools (DfE, 2011).This reflects the circumstance of England primary schools where pupils whose first vocabulary is former(a) than side of meat has increased in number. The fatality of this issue is supported by Ofsted (2012) by stating that position has a momentous position in the school plan. Thus, teachers 2 strategies to tackle this station become the centre of assistance. Where the face linguistic process has served as a lingua franca for pagan minority pupils in England, literacy clevernesss play an main(prenominal) role in their academician and perfunctory r tabuines as well(p).By localiseting previous the two important aspects of this essay teacher passe-part by growing and EAL in primary schools, it is besides necessary to mention the relevance of unite both of these aspects in a bureau out for converseion. With all collectible respect to another(prenominal) core line of businesss in the broadcast, the veridicality of inform as a difficult job and a command made by subject ara Association for phraseology growth in Curriculum (NALDIC, 20091) on EAL that it is a in truth tortuous phenomenon, seem to befuddle formidable implications for teacher headmaster development.Educational reforms much(prenominal) as broadcast reform, does not stock-purchase warrant necessary changes in classroom practices. It is well known that how a subject is taught wins oer what is taught, hence bringing up trumps curriculum (Wiliam, 201113). Therefore, when curriculum frameworks solitary(prenominal) work as removed as guiding teachers in dealing with EAL, thus judicial decision for instruction (AfL) is hence outperform integrated in training to more than(prenominal)over develop the practice of overhaul teachers and raise pupils get hold ofments. 3 position as an Additional quarrel schoolrooms in England correspond to a apprise description by NALDIC (2011), in that respect atomic number 18 over a million bilingualist pupils participating in command and learn contexts in join Kingdom. According to statistics from Department for Education and Skills (DfES, 2006a8), on that bill has been an increased of ethnic minority pupils in primary schools from 18. 3% i n 2004 to 19. 3% in 2005 and consequently reaching 20. 6% in 2006. for each angiotensin converting enzyme of these pupils enters school communities with minority expression that is not side of meat as their mother expectoration actors line.It is state by Hughes (2002) that teachers need to retrieve pupils diverse civilization to establish education environments that ar meaningful. It is important that teachers attend to their encyclopaedism inevitably in order to achieve dogma goals. The diversity in culture that whitethorn cause challenges in pupils reading according to Hughes (2002) includes the kind of spoken words use by them outside of school context such(prenominal) as at home. side of meat as an Additional expression (EAL) according to Davison (2007) refers to ethnic minority pupils who atomic number 18 comprehend as to needing support with their side development.These pupils possess style other than face (LOTE) as their mother tongue language. The spo ken language of English as a mho verbiage (ESL) is also commonly apply by some(prenominal) lookers and teachers to identify these LOTE pupils. However, on that point has been a rise of issues intimately the habitude of ESL as a full term in pedagogy hence, the term EAL is said to be a more(prenominal) appropriate term to be used as it suits the context where the English language abilities of bilingual or multi-lingual pupils ar multi-leveled (Davison, 2007).These issues revolve around the incident that LOTE pupils should not all be assumed to moot English language as their second language. These pupils chamberpot be 4 fluent in speaking and piece of writing in their mother tongue language un little not in English language, or it dejection be sin versa (NALDIC, 2009). On the other hand, these pupils contri plainlye be more fluent and able to interact with their schoolmates in English language informally, but not be able to lead in academic writing and butt agai nst the requirement of the depicted object standards.Cummins (1979) distinction amongst Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and cognitive and Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) as cited in DfES educational activity toolkit course of study (DfES, 2006b) shows that communicatory or conversational skills (BICS) of pupils usually develop first in verbal exchanges context earlier they develop their cognitive (thinking and cultivation skills) and academic languages (CALP). In general, it takes two to terzetto historic period for upils to be fluent in English as an additional language and an average of five to s crimson and counterbalance ten historic period for bilingual pupils to be competent in cognitive and academic domains. Essentially, EAL teachers need to know that only by pupils achieving development in both of their cognitive and academic language can they collapse to their academic success (DfES, 2006b). In an unquestionable fact, how successful is the direction and scholarship of English language subject in England primary schools?According to inspections do by Ofsted from April 2008 until treat 2011 in over 133 primary schools, the briskspaper publisher highlights the finding that primary schools pass slight(prenominal) rectifyments in English attainments in semblance to secondary schools (Ofsted, 2012). The problems listed are encompassed of having fewer pupils achieving national expectations in reading, and quality in breeding writing is varied such that less efforts were interpretn in spelling and handwriting. laggard amelioratements in primary schools are hence linked to the fact that there is a lack of specialists present in the pedagogy and learning context.Although, due to 5 inspections d atomic number 53 by Ofsted consist of individualists, there efficacy be biased element occupy in the evaluation. Nonetheless, Therefore, I do turn over there should be more researches nidus on the competences of teach ers by teacher information programmes and continuing master copy development. Relevance of moldable judgement in EAL Sensitive constructive assessment of pupils classroom exertion demands a high level of teacher sensation of pupil needsteachers need to take accountthe even more complex and less visible aspects of language use. (NALDIC, 2003 1) I can rival to the above quoted statement by NALDIC (2003) where teachers are required to cautiously plan fictile assessment for pupils learning by considering the complexness of language education especially EAL. According to Wiliam (2011), there has been a lack of researches done for teacher pro development. learn styles, educational neuroscience and content cranial orbit association are the common areas include in teacher professional development. Thus, why taper on formative assessment in this context?Getting into the fundamental details of understanding assessment, Green and Johnson (201014) decide assessment as more th an in force(p) tests and quizzes for the purpose of grading. Furthermore, assessment is viewed as a mix of methods to implement forwards, during and afterward lessons by taking advantage and making well-behaved use of pupils former or legitimate association to enhance learning. From the definition itself, they feasibly elucidate third main purposes of assessment 6 based on occurrence of the instruction manual.Diagnostic assessment kick the buckets before teaching, formative assessment (assessment for learning) happen during teaching and summational assessment (assessment of learning) happens after teaching (Green and Johnson, 2010). Thus, the terms diagnostic, formative and summational can be seen as shaping the functions or purposes of the capacious range of assessments. Black, Harrison, Lee, marshall and Wiliam (200331) mentioned that there are four shipway of assessing pupils questioning or classroom dialogue, feedback or feed-forward, self and peer-assessment, and formative use of summative tests.The relevance of focusing on formative assessment is due to its compatibility alongside many other aspects that contribute to pupils achievements (such as age, abilities and multileveled language). NALDIC (2003) disciplines on the insufficiency of only using National Curriculum English and thus coreed in judgement for learning (AfL) which is synonymous to formative assessment, to be used on a daily instructional basis (NALDIC, 2009). According to Stiggins (2005) as cited in Wiliam (2011), Assessment for learning exists throughout the process of pupils learning.AfL pop the questions pupils with information of their learning progress through feedback as picture and at the same while, swear out pupils on how to improve and meet achievement standards. NALDIC moldable descriptors consist of assessment framework to assist teachers on day-to-day methods or declare oneself stages for diagnosing pupils progress, and also to uphold teachers plan a nd integrate AfL into EAL teaching approaches (NALDIC, 2009). Issues in Assessing English as an Additional Language 7 We have only looked at the complexity of language in terms of its terminology.Davison (2007) mentioned that penetrating what to be taught and learnt in classrooms must guide the action of assessing EAL pupils development. Other than that, teachers must also take notes on pupils knowledge foregoing to lessons to digest them with repair learning opportunities. Shepard (2000) talked about two antithetic problems in sexual inter caterpillar track to teacher practices and pupils prior knowledge to learning. She utter that quite an a number of teachers only documented results from pre-test and post-test assessment tasks however failed to link up pupils pre-test results for enhancing pupils learning.In another case, a sizeable fare of teachers choosed in reading and language subject had the tendency of using activities that discover pupils background knowledge but failed to comprehensively integrate them with assessment. In practice, EAL pupils would have more predicaments in learning English as their additional language in comparing to native speakers of English pupils learning English. Hence, teachers are required to be more excitable towards the cultural background and prior knowledge of these EAL pupils to second fulfill their learning needs.Language as a second language contains facets such as grammatical, socio-cultural and strategic abilities taken from models that can be referred for assessing. However, Widdowson (2001) as cited by Davison and Leung (2009) stated that the complexity of language is mainly due to the absence of comprehensive views and researches on the dealings of these components, thus resulting in theoretical issues arising such as on the validness and dependableness on assessing criteria of language.For an ex good, in assessing writing, there whitethorn be a question on the hardness of perhaps teachers pu tting more strain on grammar proficiency in comparison to creative writing. 8 Thus, theoretically, with the disposition of language being multifaceted and the antithetical abilities of LOTE speaking pupils in mind, one has to rarity how teachers deal with and monitor their development and progress. Of course there are NALDIC Formative descriptors which provide framework and guidance to teachers however, there is the long-lived question of whether or not this is enough.An sample was done by Davison in 1998 (Davison, 2007) involving ten Hong Kong immigrant students in Australian secondary schools. The result of the research indicates that teachers of these immigrant students had the tendency of creating a community of interests of dialogic exchanges (Davison, 2007542). Referring to formative assessment, classroom dialogue is one of the areas used to assess students to enhance learning, nonetheless, it is the way that teachers use this method that real determines the outcomes to be positive or negative for their learning.Here, the teachers seemed to realize the background of the EAL students but omitted their learning needs. The teachers real negative conceptions towards these students such as perceiving them as depending too much on their mother-tongue language and having no motivation to learn and speak in English. Thus, this poor discernment by teachers as assessors should be a major professional concern. Furthermore, in manifestation to Davisons research, I would like to include several(prenominal) issues raised by Cumming (2009) in the meeting place section of TESOL Quarterly.Briefly, Cumming put forward problems that subsume teachers and assessment. Firstly, the problem is on teachers lack of knowledge on assessment, and also questioning their professional abilities since there are still a lack of studies done to help firmness how language teachers build up their competences 9 throughout their career. Secondly, teachers having a hard success ion in choosing assessment approaches that would work founder in help pupils meet the curriculum standards. Lastly, there are issues involved to how teachers relate assessment with pupils development and learning needs.As a result, the perspicacity skills, knowledge and abilities of teachers as assessors, are some of the many grammatical constituents that should be considered in improving within teacher professional development. Teacher pro instruction beg internal to intelligent? The demands put on teachers shoulders can be quite a slang to others who are not involved instanter in the related profession. There is even a saying that I was once told and here it is the works of a teacher to others as they see it is only a tip of an iceberg.Throughout my teaching come acrosss, I easily grasped the meaning of it as the reality of the profession manifested itself through the extra hours of marking, lesson mean and researching. During my front periods in the teaching diploma programmes, I believed teachers with years of school experience ought to master the techniques of teaching. It was my assumption that old hand teachers should outperform critic teachers. Nonetheless, with the passing of time, I have intentional to believe that experience would only give positive impacts on pupils outcomes when the serving teachers lead with them developments in their practices.Of course the time factor contributes to teacher professional development, such as to give ample opportunities to teachers to experience and develop their skills. However, for judging on how good a teacher is, it does not entirely matter on the length of time the teacher has taught, but what the teacher does within this time that is really a concern. 10 such(prenominal) as, how teachers develop teaching approaches on livery in greater learning experience for pupils in EAL classrooms or setting.Referring to my old belief, a trite assumption that Id probably turn would be that teachers s hould in effect(p) be left in schools for a period of time to eventually learn to teach disclose. Surprisingly, this assumption is proven to have a little bit of honor. Wiliam (2011) has put forward research done by Leigh (2010) on 90,000 Australian elementary school students. The research shows a small initiative of differences on the impacts of students progress as a result from the teaching between veterinary surgeon and noviciate teachers (see supplement A).Hence, a catch of years advance by veteran teachers in the career put them at a slightly better teaching result, yet Leigh stated the majority agree that the case is not al slipway the same. The attention of even on the tiniest bit of truth on the assumption that veteran teachers teach better than novices, is better turned to how they teach and develop their practices. That is, by improving their inner developments perception, knowledge, experience and polishing their critical judgment skills (Dadds, 2001).On the ot her hand, it is vital to realise that the consentient process of developing teacher practices does not evolve entirely on teachers just now catching up with the latest educational trends (Wiliam, 2011). Metaphorically, it is not as easy as reading ingredients off a pattern book and lacking of involvement in the process of cooking itself. Putnam and Borko (1997) as cited in Shepard (2000) agreed that constant experimentation and reflection on pedagogical models in real classrooms context by teachers precede salutary changes to their teaching practices, beliefs and attitudes. 1 Teacher Professional Development Strategies in EAL Looking from an foreign view, Shimahara (1998) stated that teacher professional development in every countries differ from one another in terms of its strategies. In Japan, the strategies of professional development encourage peer-development, stave in America the strategies are concentrate on following paradigms for self-development. Higgins and Leat (2 001) talked about effective teacher development by linking its models in a typifyping diagram (see Appendix B).They attempted on linking models such as those that seek on transitional stages of novice to practised teachers, teachers professional reflection, pedagogical knowledge, subject knowledge, socialisation and personal explanatory. This goes back to relate on the previous research on 90,000 elementary students in Australia on the differences of performance between novice and veteran teachers (Wiliam 2011). It would not be enough to bone up individual teachers with only a specific skill in teaching development such as on pedagogical approaches alone.This is because teacher professional development is multi-faceted and the components are interrelated. Although there are imperfections on trying to map out the complex relationships of models within teacher development due to many different meanings of the concepts in literature, however, they agreed on stressing the vastness o f teachers in having plain work purposes (Higgins and Leat, 2001). repayable to the major focus on mainstreamed classrooms in English schools, Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) therefore aims in providing all pre-service teachers 12 ith the experiences of EAL consolidation across all curriculum subjects (Cajkler and Hall, 2009). In my home country, the curriculum has a vast of English Language medium subjects listed for the majority local and non-native English speaking pupils. Thus, in the previous years, preservice and post-service teachers in Brunei had the opportunity to choose upon entering the teaching training programmes such as to narrow down in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL).However, it is adjudge by Cajkler and Hall (2009) that despite the urgency to meet the demand of change magnitude EAL pupils in England, the inclusion of EAL specialisation in pre-service teachers training programmes is out of the question due to the already very crow ded programme (Cajkler and Hall, 2009154). In the initial training, the confidence level of freshly qualified teachers (NQTs) was low especially in the fields of assessing English and teaching of literacy.The study also noted that the training provided pre-service teachers with less involvement with the national guidelines for assessment of EAL pupils Language in Common. As a result, 45% from one hundred and fifteen respondents prioritised teaching skills for EAL as the most essential further training category for continuing professional development (Cajkler and Hall, 2009). Thus, assessment and language developments are suggested to be centralised in the teacher training programmes.Therefore, in 2006, the introduction of training toolkit for EAL virtuousness and enjoyment teaching and learning for bilingual pupils in the primary years (DfES, 2006b) to schools aims to raise understanding on EAL pedagogy and provide guidance on teaching approaches for bilingual learners. Then, Whit e et al (2006) in their evaluation of the pilot programme of the DfES toolkit (DfES, 2006b) mentioned that there has been a positive improvement in teachers confidence and better comprehensive view of EAL pedagogy by teachers. 3 If I insisted on my previous assumption on letting novice teachers evolve to experts, Higgins and Leat (2001) pointed out that there are again stages involve in the transition to increase expertise. These transitional stages are not shown in the routine diagram (see Appendix B). Nonetheless, it triggers such questions as to what extend do we measure achievements of teachers to incarnate their expertise in teaching, hence, what makes one a teaching expert?Does defining ones expertise help others to improve, such as through demonstrations of teaching to pre-service and post-service teachers? Changes can only occur and produce results when teachers are willing to first, change from within. Perhaps I can look at it from this point of view where education reform ers provide new teaching models to schools, but instead, all these advanced(a) strategies are making teachers feel fill up by them and as a result, changes intend never take place in classrooms (Wiliam, 2011).Lets also reflect on the stead of the ten Hong Kong students where teachers assess them through classroom dialogue activity but misinterpreted in using that assessment to make judgments that did not contribute in helping them to learn better. As a result, Dadds (200151) emphasise teachers to cultivate their inner voice and judgment or the expert within them before accepting and using instructions from the expert outside. Teachers are learners themselves. They need to learn on how to look at their rooted determine on the profession first before thinking on improving and ply the learning needs of pupils.Suggestions to Overcome Issues in EAL 14 Other than participating actively in the schools or the nations teacher professional development programmes, there are also many othe r individualistic ways for serving teachers to successfully implement AfL in EAL pedagogical approaches. In the context of teacher professional development, it really depends on teachers to improve their knowledge and professional abilities to trust their instincts, experience and wisdom in order to help pupils attain better in their learning.Also, it is essential for teachers to be explicit on the learning intentions before assessing pupils for learning. For lesson preparations, teachers in England are opened to a wide range of resources for EAL and assessment tasks such as from EAL publications, DfES toolkit (2006b) and NALDIC official website which provide great research platforms for teachers and tutors. Teachers can use information on pupils background and prior knowledge to adjust suitable assessment tasks in classrooms.According to Shepard (2000), teachers whitethorn even evaluate their own practices through classroom assessments by turn plentiful and open into discussing matters related to improving instructions with pupils. Another way of helping teachers to develop their assessment practices is by using motion-picture show or audio recorder while assessing pupils as media to allow teachers to reflect and improve their approaches, as well as, to enable teachers to better understand the learning needs of their pupils.For peer-development, EAL teachers may make informal meetings with their EAL teaching colleagues to discuss and make amendments on certain assessments criteria (Davison, 2007 Davison and Leung, 2009). In addition to the issue of assessment validity and reliability, the matter can be partially put at ease if the assessing of pupils is done by teachers who know them very well. In addition, 15 teachers should be granted great autonomy to plan and help the learning of their own pupils (Davison and Leung, 2009).However, if the case of validity and reliability is over-emphasised, therefore, I believe that the stipulation of teachers as ass essors may be perceived as weak and the whole focus of AfL would be none other than a replacement of standardised traditional ways of assessing. As cited by Shepard (2000), Assessment tidy Group (1999) which consists of researchers from England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, put forward their discourse to the government policies on three important aspects. Firstly, to amend inspectorate policies to help warranty teachers as qualified assessors for pupils learning.Secondly, increase the funding on professional development opportunities for teachers. Finally, still teachers from the apprehensive pressure of standard examinations when planning instructions for pupils learning. Conclusion The impetus of this essay derived from the fact whereby is supported by NALDIC (2009) that English as an Additional Language (EAL) development is a rather difficult situation that gives impact to teachers professional experience. There has been a great emphasise on EAL in England due to its long tradition of migration and mainstream classrooms in primary schools.In relation to the urgency, teacher professional development in England becomes the foreground in dealing with the increasing number of language other than the English (LOTE) speaking pupils in state funded schools (DfE, 2011). On the other hand, the integration of AfL in the teaching of EAL is seen to be the best way to assist teachers in increasing pupils literacy competences. NALDIC Formative descriptors, established in 2009, serve as assessment framework that provides teachers with 16 approaches to diagnose the progress of pupils in EAL and provide them with feedback evidence to improve learning (NALDIC, 2003).Language education is very complex. The nature of language involves stages of competencies and encompasses of many interrelated components (Davison and Leung, 2009). Thus, trying to figure out the abilities of bilingual or multilingual pupils in English language and which aspect or components of the language to use to judge their competences, is quite the phenomenon. Therefore, there are issues involving teachers critical judgments and wisdom whilst assessing EAL pupils that highlights the necessity of teacher professional development.According to Higgings and Leat (2001) by referring to Teacher Training Agency (1997), primary teacher training in United Kingdom provided a course where pre-service teachers are to obtain all the needs of professional learning by attending ample of lectures on subject knowledge, teaching approaches and a number of demonstrations on teaching. However, from a study done by Cajkler and Hall (2009), the result shows that there is inconsistency in the focus of EAL in the teacher training programme provided by TDA in England.Time is an essential element in development but it is also relevant to look at teachers as individuals with different abilities. From my experience, some teachers could be capable and creative than the others, and some teachers cou ld be more motivated. Therefore, arguing on which aspect contributes more in improving teacher practices is unacceptable due to the fact that it is beyond my force for discussion and the restriction of this essay. In a nutshell, I agree that that teacher professional development is complex.Education reformers should not merely focus on one area of teaching practices but also to acknowledge other teaching related factors. 17 Nonetheless, Wiliam (2011) paraphrased Doug Lenov (2010) and stated that teachers have no maximum limitation of success and should think that striving for sustained development throughout their career is necessary. aft(prenominal) all, teachers are not just basically required to help develop EAL pupils into becoming capable learners in their classrooms but, they also help them to become capable members of the schools and cultural societies (Davison, 2007).Therefore, teachers disbelieving attitude towards innovative strategies that would help improve their teaching has to be countered with other strategies that would prepare them with the changes they need from within. Iteratively, professional development for teachers needs to be guided with intentions that are relevant and supportive to their continuous professional development in order to face the continuous challenges of the evolving society nowadays. 18 REFERENCES Black, P. , Harrison, C. , Lee, C. , Marshall, B. and Wiliam, D. 2003) Assessment for Learning Putting It into Practice. England pass on University Press. Cumming, A. (2009) What Needs to Be Developed to Facilitate Classroom-Based Assessment? In TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 43(3), 515 519. Dadds, M. (2001) Continuing Professional Development Nurturing the Expert Within. In Burgess, H. , Craft, A. and Soler, J. (Eds) Teacher Development Exploring Our testify Practice, 50 56. capital of the United Kingdom The Open University. Davison, C. (2007) antithetical Definitions of Language and Language Learning Implications for Asse ssment. In Cummin, H. nd Davison C. (Eds) International Handbook of English Language Teaching, Vol. 1, 533 548. Norwell, MA Springer. Davison, C. and Leung, C. (2009) Current Issues in English Language Teacher-Based Assessment. In TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 43(3), 393 416. DfE (2011) DfE Schools, Pupils and Their Characteristics January 2011. http//www. education. gov. uk/researchandstatistics/datasets/a00196810/schools-pupils-and-theircharacteristics-january-2, accessed November 20, 2012. 19 DfES (2006a) Ethnicity and Education The Evidence on minority Ethnic Pupils Aged 5 16.London DfES. DfES (2006b) Excellence and Enjoyment Learning and Teaching for bilingualist Children in the Primary Years, Unit 1, be after and Assessment for Language and Learning. London DfES. Green, S. K. and Johnson, R. L. (2010) Assessment is Essential. New York McGraw-Hill. Higgins, S. and Leat, D. (2001) Horses for Courses or Courses for Horses What is Effective Teacher Development? In Burgess, H. , Cra ft, A. and Soler, J. (Eds) Teacher Development Exploring Our Own Practice, 57 58. London The Open University. Hughes, P. 2002) Principles of Primary Education Study study 2nd Edition. London David Fulton Publishers Ltd. NALDIC (2003) NALDIC Position avowal on Assessment of English as an Additional Language. http//www. naldic. org. uk/eal-advocacy/naldic-reports-and-responses/naldic-briefingsand-letters, accessed November 21, 2012. NALDIC (2009) EAL Assessment Frameworks, illustrations and Useful Documents for Classroom Teacher. http//www. naldic. org. uk/eal-teaching-and-learning/eal-resources/eal-assessment, accessed November 21, 2012. NALDIC (2011) Bilingual and Dual Language Resources. ttp//www. naldic. org. uk/ealteaching-and-learning/eal-resources/bilingual, accessed November 20, 2012. 20 Ofsted (2012) Moving English Forward deed to Raise Standards in English. http//www. ofsted. gov. uk/resources/moving-english-forward, accessed November 27, 2012. Shepard, L. A. (2000) The Role of Assessment in a Learning Culture. In Educational researcher, Vol. 29(7), 4 14. USA American Educational Research Association. Shimahara, N. K. (1998) The Japanese Model of Professional Development Teaching as Craft.In Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 14(5), 451 462. Great Britain Elsevier acquaintance Ltd. White, K. , Lewis, K. , and Fletcher-Campbell, F. (2006) Raising the Achievement of Bilingual Learners in Primary Schools Evaluation of the Pilot/Programme, Research Report RR758 (National Foundation for Educational Research). London DfES. Wiliam, D. (2011) Embedded Formative Assessment. USA tooth root Tree Press. 21 APPENDIX A A graph that shows the rate of teacher productivity in relation to their years of working experience (Leigh, 2010) cited in Wiliam (201128)